SPOKEN SIBE

MORPHOLOGY OF THE INFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH

VERONIKA ZIKMUNDOVÁ

KAROLINUM

Spoken Sibe

Morphology of the Inflected Parts of Speech

Veronika Zikmundová

Reviewed by:

Bayarma Khabtagaeva-Kempf, Ph.D.

Cheng Zhi, Ph.D.

Published by Charles University in Prague

Karolinum Press

www.karolinum.cz

ebooks@karolinum.cz

Cover Jan Šerých

First Edition

© Charles University in Prague, 2013

© Veronika Zikmundová, 2013

ISBN 978-80-246-2103-6

ISBN 978-80-246-2489-1 (pdf)

ISBN 978-80-246-3043-4 (ePub)

ISBN 978-80-246-3044-1 (Kindle)

CONTENTS

1. Cover Page

2. Title Page

3. Copyright Page

4. Contents

5. List of abbreviations

6. 0 - Introduction

7. 1 - Characteristics of spoken Sibe

1. 1.1 - Notes on the phonetics and phonology

1. 1.1.1 - Problems of the phonological description of Sibe

2. 1.1.2 - Previous research of the Sibe phonemic system

3. 1.1.3 - List of sounds in spoken Sibe

2. 1.2 - Questions of transcription

3. 1.3 - Remarks on the Sibe vocabulary

1. 1.3.1 - Personal names

2. 1.3.2 - Children’s expressions

3. 1.3.3 - Vicarious expressions

4. 1.4 - Remarks on syntax – negation

1. 1.4.1 - The negative particle aqů

2. 1.4.2 - The negative particle vaq

5. 1.5 - Word classes in spoken Sibe

1. 1.5.1 - Brief characteristics of the parts of speech

8. 2 - The Noun

1. 2.1 - The category of number

1. 2.1.1 - Generic number

2. 2.1.2 - Partial number

3. 2.1.3 - Specific forms of the use of the partial number

4. 2.1.4 - Expressing plurality through lexical means

2. 2.2 - The category of case

1. 2.2.1 - Nominative

2. 2.2.2 - Genitive

3. 2.2.3 - Dative-locative

4. 2.2.4 - Accusative

5. 2.2.5 - Ablative

6. 2.2.6 - Lative

7. 2.2.7 - Instrumental-sociative

9. 3 - Qualitative nouns

1. 3.1 - Qualitative nouns formed by derivational suffixes

1. 3.1.2 - Qualitative nouns in the function of an attribute

2. 3.1.3 - Qualitative nouns determining verbs

3. 3.1.4 - Specific grammatical categories of qualitative nouns

4. 3.1.5 - Other ways of expressing quality, appearance, etc.

5. 3.1.6 - Vicarious qualitative nouns and other anaphoric expressions

10. 4 - Pronouns

1. 4.1 - Personal pronouns

1. 4.1.1 - Personal pronouns in nominative

2. 4.1.2 - Personal pronouns in genitive

3. 4.1.3 - Personal pronouns in dative

4. 4.1.4 - Personal pronouns in accusative

5. 4.1.5 - Personal pronouns in ablative

6. 4.1.6 - Personal pronouns in lative

7. 4.1.7 - Personal pronouns in instrumental-sociative

2. 4.2 - Remarks on the personal pronouns

3. 4.3 - Demonstrative pronouns

1. 4.3.1 - The demonstrative pronouns ər and tər

2. 4.3.2 - The pronouns mər and mətər

3. 4.3.3 - The pronouns ək and səkəi /skəi

4. 4.4 - Interrogative pronouns

1. 4.4.1 - The pronoun ‘ai’

2. 4.4.2 - The pronoun ya – ‘which’ as an attribute

3. 4.4.3 - The pronoun yam (< ya əm – ‘which one’)

4. 4.4.4 - The pronoun yamkən (‘which one’ – an independent part of speech)

5. 4.4.5 - The pronoun və (‘who’)

5. 4.5 - Notes on demonstrative and interrogative pronouns

11. 5 - Numerals

1. 5.1 - The cardinal numerals

2. 5.2 - The ordinal numerals

3. 5.3 - The idiomatic use of numerals

12. 6 - Spatials

1. 6.1 - The spatial system in written Manchu

1. 6.1.1 - The spatial roots in written Manchu

2. 6.1.2 - The spatial suffixes in written Manchu

3. 6.1.3 - Meaning and use of the Manchu spatial suffixes

2. 6.2 - The spatial system in spoken Sibe

1. 6.2.1 - Spatial roots in spoken Sibe

2. 6.2.2 - Spatial suffixes in spoken Sibe

3. 6.2.3 - The use of Sibe spatials

4. 6.2.4 - The suffix -bi

5. 6.2.5 - The suffix -ś

6. 6.2.6 - Temporal use of spatials

13. 7 - The verb

1. 7.1 - The verbal system of spoken Sibe

1. 7.1.1 - The problem of definition of the finite verbs in Sibe

2. 7.1.2 - The delayed personal pronoun

3. 7.1.3 - Verbum existentiae

4. 7.1.4 - Negation of verbal forms

5. 7.1.5 - Question

2. 7.2 - Finite verbs

1. 7.2.1 - The imperfect verb -m(-i-e) (praesens imperfecti)

2. 7.2.2 - The progressive verb -mεye

3. 7.2.3 - The progressive verb -m-a-ʁ-əi(e) (PROG.II)

4. 7.2.4 - The perfective verb -ʁəi(e), -ɣəi(e) and its alomorphs

5. 7.2.5 - The verbal form expressing a forthcoming action – m-ůʁůi

3. 7.3 - Imperative and optative forms

1. 7.3.1 - Command for the second-person – imperative

2. 7.3.2 - Polite imperative -mə (benedictive)

3. 7.3.3 - Voluntative

4. 7.3.4 - Optative -kiňi

4. 7.4 - Verbal nouns

1. 7.4.1 - The imperfective verbal noun -r (nomen imperfecti)

2. 7.4.2 - Perfective verbal noun -h (nomen perfecti)

3. 7.4.3 - The progressive verbal noun -maʁ

4. 7.4.4 - Verbal nouns II

5. 7.5 - Converbs

1. 7.5.1 - The imperfective converb -m(ə) (converbum imperfecti)

2. 7.5.2 - The perfective converb -maq (converbum perfecti)

3. 7.5.3 - The perfective converb -f(ie)/-f(ə)

4. 7.5.4 - The conditional converb -či (converbum conditionale)

5. 7.5.5 - Terminative converb -čiňi

6. 7.6 - Deverbal suffixes

1. 7.6.1 - The causative suffix -v

2. 7.6.2 - Beginning of an action: the suffix -mači-

7. 7.7 - Vicarious verbs

14. Acknowledgments

15. Appendix

16. Vocabulary

17. References

18. Summary

List of abbreviations

0. Introduction

1. Characteristics of spoken Sibe

1.1. Notes on the phonetics and phonology

1.1.1. Problems of the phonological description of Sibe

1.1.2. Previous research of the Sibe phonemic system

1.1.3. List of sounds in spoken Sibe

1.2. Questions of transcription

1.3. Remarks on the Sibe vocabulary

1.3.1. Personal names

1.3.2. Children’s expressions

1.3.3. Vicarious expressions

1.4. Remarks on syntax – negation

1.4.1. The negative particle aqů

1.4.2. The negative particle vaq

1.5. Word classes in spoken Sibe

1.5.1. Brief characteristics of the parts of speech

2. The Noun

2.1. The category of number

2.1.1. Generic number

2.1.2. Partial number

2.1.3. Specific forms of the use of the partial number

2.1.4. Expressing plurality through lexical means

2.2. The category of case

2.2.1. Nominative

2.2.2. Genitive

2.2.3. Dative-locative

2.2.4. Accusative

2.2.5. Ablative

2.2.6. Lative

2.2.7. Instrumental-sociative

3. Qualitative nouns

3.1. Qualitative nouns formed by derivational suffixes

3.1.2. Qualitative nouns in the function of an attribute

3.1.3. Qualitative nouns determining verbs

3.1.4. Specific grammatical categories of qualitative nouns

3.1.5. Other ways of expressing quality, appearance, etc.

3.1.6. Vicarious qualitative nouns and other anaphoric expressions

4. Pronouns

4.1. Personal pronouns

4.1.1. Personal pronouns in nominative

4.1.2. Personal pronouns in genitive

4.1.3. Personal pronouns in dative

4.1.4. Personal pronouns in accusative

4.1.5. Personal pronouns in ablative

4.1.6. Personal pronouns in lative

4.1.7. Personal pronouns in instrumental-sociative

4.2. Remarks on the personal pronouns

4.3. Demonstrative pronouns

4.3.1. The demonstrative pronouns ər and tər

4.3.2. The pronouns mər and mətər

4.3.3. The pronouns ək and səkəi /skəi

4.4. Interrogative pronouns

4.4.1. The pronoun ‘ai’

4.4.2. The pronoun ya – ‘which’ as an attribute

4.4.3. The pronoun yam (< ya əm – ‘which one’)

4.4.4. The pronoun yamkən (‘which one’ – an independent part of speech)

4.4.5. The pronoun və (‘who’)

4.5. Notes on demonstrative and interrogative pronouns

5. Numerals

5.1. The cardinal numerals

5.2. The ordinal numerals

5.3. The idiomatic use of numerals

6. Spatials

6.1. The spatial system in written Manchu

6.1.1. The spatial roots in written Manchu

6.1.2. The spatial suffixes in written Manchu

6.1.3. Meaning and use of the Manchu spatial suffixes

6.2. The spatial system in spoken Sibe

6.2.1. Spatial roots in spoken Sibe

6.2.2. Spatial suffixes in spoken Sibe

6.2.3. The use of Sibe spatials

6.2.4. The suffix -bi

6.2.5. The suffix -ś

6.2.6. Temporal use of spatials

7. The verb

7.1. The verbal system of spoken Sibe

7.1.1. The problem of definition of the finite verbs in Sibe

7.1.2. The delayed personal pronoun

7.1.3. Verbum existentiae

7.1.4. Negation of verbal forms

7.1.5. Question

7.2. Finite verbs

7.2.1. The imperfect verb -m(-i-e) (praesens imperfecti)

7.2.2. The progressive verb -mεye

7.2.3. The progressive verb -m-a-ʁ-əi(e) (PROG.II)

7.2.4. The perfective verb -ʁəi(e), -ɣəi(e) and its alomorphs

7.2.5. The verbal form expressing a forthcoming action – m-ůʁůi

7.3. Imperative and optative forms

7.3.1. Command for the second-person – imperative

7.3.2. Polite imperative -mə (benedictive)

7.3.3. Voluntative

7.3.4. Optative -kiňi

7.4. Verbal nouns

7.4.1. The imperfective verbal noun -r (nomen imperfecti)

7.4.2. Perfective verbal noun -h (nomen perfecti)

7.4.3. The progressive verbal noun -maʁ

7.4.4. Verbal nouns II

7.5. Converbs

7.5.1. The imperfective converb -m(ə) (converbum imperfecti)

7.5.2. The perfective converb -maq (converbum perfecti)

7.5.3. The perfective converb -f(ie)/-f(ə)

7.5.4. The conditional converb -či (converbum conditionale)

7.5.5. Terminative converb -čiňi

7.6. Deverbal suffixes

7.6.1. The causative suffix -v

7.6.2. Beginning of an action: the suffix -mači-

7.7. Vicarious verbs

Acknowledgments

Appendix

Vocabulary

References

Summary

1. 1

2. 2

3. 5

4. 6

5. 7

6. 8

7. 9

8. 10

9. 11

10. 12

11. 13

12. 14

13. 15

14. 16

15. 17

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35. 37

36. 38

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44. 46

45. 47

46. 48

47. 49

48. 50

49. 51

50. 52

51. 53

52. 54

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54. 56

55. 57

56. 58

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58. 60

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60. 62

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63. 65

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65. 67

66. 68

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68. 70

69. 71

70. 72

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134. 136

135. 137

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137. 139

138. 140

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142. 144

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144. 146

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148. 150

149. 151

150. 152

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168. 170

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170. 172

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227. 229

228. 230

229. 231

1. Cover Page

2. Begin Reading

3. Copyright Page

4. Contents

5. Introduction

6. Acknowledgments

7. Appendix

8. References

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACC.

– Accusative case suffix

ACT.

– Actualizing particle

BEN.

– Benedictive

CC.

– Conditional converb suffix

CI.

– Imperfective converb

CP.

– Perfective converb

CT.

– Terminative converb

DL.

– Dative-locative

DOUB.

– Doubling

ECHO

– Echo doubling

EMP.

– Emphatic vowel

F.

– Foregrounding particle

GEN.

– Genitive

GEN.II

– Genitive form used to appropriate sb. or sth. to a person or object which itself is appropriated to sb.

IMP.

– Praesens imperfecti

IMPER.

– Imperative

INC.

– Inceptive verbal form

IS.

– Instrumental-sociative

LAT.

– Lative case suffix

LIM.

– Limiting particle

NEG.

– Particle of negation

NEG.EX.

– Negative existential

NI.II

– Imperfective verbal noun II

NI.

– Imperfective verbal noun

NP.

– Perfective verbal noun

NP.II

– Perfective verbal noun II

NPROG.II

– Progressive verbal noun II

MOD.

– Suffix with the meaning of modulation and slight emphasis

ONOM.

– Onomatopoetic expression

PERF.

– Perfective verb (finite form)

POSS.

– 3rd person enclitic possessive pronoun

PROB.

– Particle of probability, suggestion etc.

PROG.

– Progressive verb

S.G.

– Suffix of a separately standing genitive form

QUEST.

– Interrogative particle

QUOT.

– Quotation particle

0

INTRODUCTION

In the present work I attempt to describe one of the subsystems of the grammatical structure of the Sibe language, the morphology of the flexible parts of speech, to the extent and depth as the collected material and my own experience with the language has allowed. In the course of the description I have attempt, when possible, to put the given idiom into the context of literary Manchu and Mongolian, and to perceive it within the context of communication. I also discuss some problems of interpretation, mainly the classification of parts of speech.

Sibe is a Tungusic language closely related to classical Manchu. The Jungarian Sibes, who at present live in the north-west of Xinjiang, are in fact the last speakers of the Manchu language. Although around 20 thousand Sibes still speak their language, Sibe deserves to be labelled as an endangered language for a number of reasons. Several descriptions of the basic grammatical structure of spoken Sibe have been published, and parts of grammar have been studied in detail. Still, there is a persistant need of a thorough description of the language as a whole, which is becoming more urgent with the decreasing level of its knowledge among the Sibe speakers themselves.

The present description is based mainly on authentic language material gathered during my fieldwork among the Sibes in Xinjiang. I have focused on the description of the two most clearly defined parts of vocabulary, previously analyzed in depth in the context of various Altaic languages – the nouns and the verbs.

In addition to this main contribution I also give the brief general characteristics of the morphology of spoken Sibe, and I attempt a tentative classification of the parts of speech and their syntactical characteristics. All of the described features are accompanied by examples drawn from the language material collected in the course of my fieldwork in Xinjiang.

A sample of texts in spoken Sibe with translations is appended. It is intended to supplement the description presented here of the language with characteristics of higher than the morphosyntactical level – the text structure, idiomaticity, some poetical and other special means of expression, humour, etc.

Comparison with Mongolian suggests itself for a few reasons: Above all spoken Sibe and its historical predecessors have repeatedly been subjected to the strong influence of the Mongolic languages, and all levels of the language show remarkable typological correspondences with Mongolian. Since there is not enough space for systematic comparison in this work, I attempt to point out parallels and analogies, as well as differences, between spoken Sibe and Khalkha Mongolian in the course of the description.[1]

Apart from the structure of the language I attempt to describe its use in communication as well. I comment on the pragmatics of the oral language and on the various conditions and background of its actual usage. This is a result of the observation that while Sibe is the main and fully functional means of communication for the older generation of speakers, competence in the language rapidly decreases with age. It is very likely that in the course of the next few decades spoken Sibe will be on the verge of extinction, and it is therefore important to record it in as much detail as possible in its full form existing at present, together with the communication context which undergoes changes as drastically as the language itself.

The Sibe people and their language

The self-appellation of the Sibe people is pronounced Śivə,[2] the official Chinese term is Xibo, in Russian literature the terms sibin’ci / šibin’ci are used, while in the English works the name ‘Sibe’ has been established, which corresponds to the written form. The Jungarian Sibes are part of the larger Sibe ethnic group, whom the earliest records situate in south-eastern Manchuria (the Changbaishan mountain range). At present the Manchurian Sibes live mostly in the provinces of Girin (Jilin) and Mukden (Shenyang), numbering around 100,000 persons.[3] These Sibes lost the Sibe language at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1764, a segment of the of the Sibe population was commanded by the Emperor Qianlong to settle in the Ili area of Xinjiang, which had been depopulated by the Jungar wars. The descendants of these Sibes now number around 30,000 individuals, and the greater part of them have retained their traditions and use the Sibe language as their mother-tongue.

The language of this ethnic group, which I refer to as spoken or oral Sibe, may be considered one of the Manchu dialects. Since the Manchu language of Manchuria is on the verge of extinction, the Sibe people are the only heirs to the Manchu language and culture.

The spoken Sibe language, despite its unique position as an oral form of Manchu, has been the subject of relatively little research. Most of the fieldwork conducted among the Sibe people has been focused on various aspects of their culture, in particular the Sibe folklore, music, literature and religion. Apart from a few grammatical descriptions, several publications of materials of the spoken language and dictionaries have significantly contributed to the study of spoken Sibe. Complex descriptions and deep analyses of the grammar, however, are still lacking.

Brief summary of the history of the Sibes[4]

The early history of the Sibe people is subject to speculation. Following their language and cultural closeness to the Manchus, the Sibes were originally regarded as one of the Jurchen tribes (An, Wu, Zhao pp. 21–23). Modern Sibe historians have advanced a theory about the Xianbei afilliation of the Sibe tribe (An, Wu, Zhao, pp. 13–58).[5] This change of view, however, seems to have a certain political background.

The earliest historical records, which can be unambiguously identified with the present-day Sibe ethnic group, date from the 16th century, when the Sibe people were living as a vassal tribe of an eastern Mongolian group, the Khorchins. At that time the Sibes were settled in the Changbaishan mountains (Ma. Golmin šanggiyan alin) in south-eastern Manchuria. Those Sibe historians, who suggest the Xianbei origin of the Sibes, suppose that in the earlier stages of their history the Sibe tribe lived in Western Manchuria, in the region known today as Hölönbuir (An, Wu, Zhao, pp. 57–60).

During the reign of the Emperor Kangxi, the Sibes were persuaded by the Manchus to separate from the Khorchins. In the following period they were resettled from the Changbaishan mountains (allegedly due to their unruly character) and divided among Manchu administration centres – Girin, Mukden and Guihua (present Hohhot). According to the Sibe tradition, they were valued by the Manchu Emperors for their warlike character and courage in battle. The Sibe banners became a part of the New Manchu military formation. In 1764, following a decree of the Emperor Qianlong, a group of the New Manchus, consisting mostly of the Sibe banners, moved to the newly conquered areas of the former Dzungar Khanate. The movement to Xinjiang, which dispersed families and clans, the hard journey through Mongolia and other aspects of the whole event subsequently found a rich reflection in the Sibe popular history, folklore and written narratives. After a year-long journey and several resettlements inside Dzungaria the New Manchus settled along the left bank of the Ili River in an area known as Chabchal (Mo. Čavčaal, Chin. Chabuchaer). The Sibe soldiers were put in charge of the border fortresses along most of the north-western border of Xinjiang, and were also compelled to man the Imperial garrisons in the Uighur cities of the Tarim basin.

During the next two hundred years the Sibe banners played an important role in the suppression of the anti-Manchu (in the last case anti-Chinese) rebellions of the local people. During the 19th century smaller detachments of the Sibe soldiers were moved to other places in the vicinity of Ili, the most distant being that of Tarbagatai (Mo. Tarbagatai, Uig. Čöčäk, Chin. Tacheng).[6] During the 20th century many Sibes settled in Ghulja city.

The Ili valley forms part of the former Jungar Khanate and of the geographical unit called the Jungar basin, therefore the local Sibe enclave has been generally known as the Jungarian Sibes.

The river Ili separates the Chabchal region from the city of Ghulja,[7] which was one of the traditional administrative centres of Jungaria as a whole. The western border of Chabchal is formed by the mountain range of Usun,[8] which forms the border with Khazakhstan. The Ili valley is, thanks to its relatively moist climate, the most fertile part of Xinjiang. Chabchal, irrigated by the Chabchal canal[9] with the water from Ili, has been an important agricultural area.

Until the middle of the 16th century, when the Manchus conquered Jungaria and the Tarim basin and created a new administrative unit with a military government, corresponding to the present-day Xinjiang, the mountain pastures of the Ili region were inhabited by the remnants of the western-Mongolian Oirat tribes (mainly the Choros, Khoshuud, Dörbet, Torghuut and Khoit). During Manchu rule the ethnic composition of the inhabitants in Ili greatly changed. Muslim farmers were moved from the Tarim oases to provide food supply for the Manchu army.[10] Part of the Chakhar Mongols was moved from southern Mongolia to Xinjiang and settled near Lake Sayram on a plateau above the Ili valley. During the 18th and 19th centuries nomadic Kazakh and Kirghiz as well as Uzbek farmers moved gradually to the area. As the result of the Russian conquest of Siberia many Russian, Tatar, Nogai and Central Asian Jews gradually resettled in Ili. The Russian influence in the Ili area culminated during the rule of Sheng Shicai (1933–1944)[11] and the Second East Turkestan Republic (1944–1949).

This multiethnic and multi-cultural milieu existed until the 1950s, when after the entry of the Maoist army, cruel repressions of all non-Han inhabitants began to be enforced. During the Cultural Revolution it was forbidden to teach the Sibe language and the Manchu script, the shamans and Buddhist monks were persecuted and the artifacts and religious and cult implements were destroyed. The Cultural Revolution caused an entire generation of the Sibes grow up without knowledge of the Manchu script and with a limited knowledge of spoken Sibe.

Thus during the past 400 years, the Sibe people changed their abodes, language and cultural environment several times. Sibe culture has absorbed a large number of influences, which can be seen today in their folklore and literature.

Contacts and influences

The oldest roots of Sibe culture are presumed to lie in the ethnically and culturally diverse milieu of the half-settled hunters, fishermen and herders of Middle Manchuria. The Sibe scholars, judging from information in the oldest layer of folklore, place the ancestral homeland[12] of the tribe to the forested mountains of the Hinggan range. In any case the importance of clans, the role of shamans, the cults of wild and domestic animals and veneration of numerous spirits link the Sibe culture to that of the Manchus and the Daghurs.[13] There are two folksongs,[14] which are perceived by all Jungarian Sibes as the most ancient ones – the songs Yačina (the meaning of the title is unclear) and Domdoqůn učun (‘The Butterfly Song’). The lyrics of these songs recall the lifestyle of forest hunters and fishermen and is not fully comprehensible to modern Sibes. It is also not clear on what occasions they were originally performed. Their melody and rhythm considerably differ from most of the later songs.

Similarly, the lullaby used by all Sibes, as well as some of the shaman songs, seem to come from the most ancient layer of the cultural heritage of the Jungarian Sibes.

Later, in the times of their vassalage to the Khorchins, the Sibes absorbed some features of the Khorchin shamanic cult, which, it appears, developed a previously non-existing stratification and hierarchy under the influence of Buddhism. They also adopted Buddhism in the earliest stage of its spread among the Khorchins, with Classical Mongolian as a liturgical language.[15] The influence of the Khorchin Mongols was in many respects more direct and profound on the Sibes than on the Manchus. One part of Sibe folklore is thought to bear[16] traces of Mongolian influence, as some wedding songs and many shaman songs, melodies for the traditional dance known as bəylən (cf. Mo. bielgee) etc.

After the Sibes left the Changbaishan mountain and re-settled in the great Manchu garrison cities, they came into intensive contact with the Chinese-influenced Manchu culture. This led to the emergence of a clear-cut and important layer of culture.[17]

After their arrival to Xinjiang, the position of the Sibes as a garrison of the army of occupation significantly hindered the possibility of contact with the local inhabitants, particularly the settled Muslim farmers. In fact the first significant contacts with the Uighurs do not date to earlier than to the beginning of the 20th century. After the arrival of the tribe to Xinjiang, the Sibe culture underwent an interesting development. Some parts of their cultural heritage, which they brought to their new home, were gradually lost, while others were intentionally handed down and developed in new directions.

The relatively modern layer in the traditional Sibe culture has formed after the arrival to Xinjiang, when the separation from the homeland and relatives, the wars with the Uighurs during various rebellions[18] and the Russian occupation of Ili[19] became the main motives in their folklore. A specific literary form, typical for the Jungarian Sibes, is the julən (Lit. Ma. julun), an extensive epic poem on mostly historical topics.[20] Among the most famous juləns are the Gurinjihe učun (‘The Song of Resettlement’), Kašgar-i učun (‘The Song of Kashgar’) and Lasihiyantu-i učun (‘The Song of Lasihiyantu’).[21] Many juləns, namely the earlier ones, have developed from folk songs, but many, especially those more recent, have been authorial compositions. Famous juləns were handed down the families, but generally the composition of juləns seems to have been a widespread form of art, and chanting the juləns used to be a common entertainment for winter nights.[22]

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Table of Contents

Cover Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Contents

List of abbreviations

0 - Introduction

1 - Characteristics of spoken Sibe

1.1 - Notes on the phonetics and phonology

1.3 - Remarks on the Sibe vocabulary

1.4 - Remarks on syntax – negation

1.5 - Word classes in spoken Sibe

2 - The Noun

2.1 - The category of number

2.2 - The category of case

3 - Qualitative nouns

3.1 - Qualitative nouns formed by derivational suffixes

4 - Pronouns

4.1 - Personal pronouns

4.3 - Demonstrative pronouns

4.4 - Interrogative pronouns

5 - Numerals

6 - Spatials

6.1 - The spatial system in written Manchu

6.2 - The spatial system in spoken Sibe

7 - The verb

7.1 - The verbal system of spoken Sibe

7.2 - Finite verbs

7.3 - Imperative and optative forms

7.4 - Verbal nouns

7.5 - Converbs

7.6 - Deverbal suffixes